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苯并(a)芘致癌的表觀遺傳學作用機制研究進展

2017-06-05 14:18周超文胡建安
中國藥理學與毒理學雜志 2017年5期
關鍵詞:染毒癌基因遺傳學

周超文,胡建安

(中南大學公共衛生學院勞動衛生與環境衛生學系,湖南長沙 410078)

·前沿論壇·

苯并(a)芘致癌的表觀遺傳學作用機制研究進展

周超文,胡建安

(中南大學公共衛生學院勞動衛生與環境衛生學系,湖南長沙 410078)

胡建安,博士,中南大學湘雅公共衛生學院二級教授,博士生導師。長期從事職業衛生與職業醫學及毒理學教學和科研工作。1996-1999年在美國南佛羅里達大學從事毒理學研究工作。主持國家自然科學基金項目4項及教育部博士點基金等省部級項目13項。以第一或通訊作者發表學術論文100余篇。參編國家規劃教材《職業衛生與職業醫學》和研究生教材《分子毒理學》等8本。培養博士和碩士研究生51名。任中國毒理學會理事和湖南省勞動衛生學會副主任委員等職。

近年研究發現,環境致癌物苯并(a)芘的致癌機制除遺傳毒性外,可引起全基因組甲基化減低、抑癌基因甲基化升高及原癌基因甲基化降低,亦可引起微RNA表達升高或降低、長鏈非編碼RNA表達升高、組蛋白磷酸化水平升高、組蛋白甲基化和乙?;Ш獾缺碛^遺傳學變化。這些改變既可引起基因表達異常、染色體結構異常和不穩定性增加直接致癌,又可以引起相應的遺傳毒性改變,如基因突變、基因損傷修復異常、細胞凋亡和細胞周期阻滯等協同致癌,被認為是苯并(a)芘致癌可能的表觀遺傳學機制。上述研究為進一步揭示苯并(a)芘引起的環境相關性疾病和職業病的發生機制及防治策略提供了科學依據。

苯并(a)芘;表觀遺傳學;DNA甲基化;微RNA;長鏈非編碼RNA;組蛋白修飾

苯并(a)芘〔benzo[a]pyrene,B(a)P〕是最常見的多環芳烴類環境化學污染物,主要來源于煤和石油等燃料燃燒的煙氣、煙草燃燒的煙霧、油炸食品以及汽車尾氣中。B(a)P的職業暴露主要發生在焦炭的生產、煤的氣化和液化、瀝青的鋪陳、鋁的生產和煙囪清掃等過程中。國際癌癥研究機構2012年已經將B(a)P歸為第一類致癌物,即對人類致癌,可引起肺癌、肝癌、胃癌和皮膚癌等多種癌癥。B(a)P本身并不具有致癌性,只有在機體內經過氧化代謝活化生成7,8-二羥基-9,10-環氧B(a)P〔7,8-dihydroxybenzo[a]pyrene-9,10-oxide,BPDE〕才能致癌[1]?;钚源x物BPDE可以與DNA上的鳥嘌呤形成BPDE-DNA加合物,通過引起氧化應激、基因突變和染色體畸變等遺傳改變來發揮其致癌作用。

然而,最近越來越多的證據表明,表觀遺傳學調控在B(a)P的致癌過程中也具有非常關鍵的作用,B(a)P致癌的表觀遺傳學機制已經成為當前毒理學研究的熱點。表觀遺傳學是在基因的核苷酸序列不發生改變的情況下,基因表達發生的可遺傳的變化,包括DNA甲基化、非編碼RNA、組蛋白修飾、核小體的定位與表達等多種改變{2]。本文主要對B(a)P所致幾個方面的表觀遺傳學改變進行總結,為闡明其致癌的表觀遺傳學機制提供依據。

1 苯并(a)芘與DNA甲基化

DNA甲基化是在DNA甲基轉移酶的催化下,甲基從供體S-腺苷甲硫氨酸甲基添加到DNA胞嘧啶殘基上的過程。DNA甲基化主要發生在基因的CpG雙核苷酸位點,能夠抑制基因的表達。B(a)P對DNA甲基化的作用包括對全基因甲基化的作用以及對特定基因甲基化的作用。

1.1 苯并(a)芘與全基因甲基化

用B(a)P<40 μmol·L-1處理人支氣管上皮細胞,發現隨著濃度的增高,DNA甲基化程度呈先略增高后降低的趨勢,并且能被DNA甲基轉移酶抑制劑5-氮雜脫氧胞苷所抑制[3-5]。對小鼠[6]和石斑魚幼體[7-8]的研究也顯示,隨著B(a)P染毒濃度的增加,全基因組甲基化的水平逐漸減低。多個人群試驗表明,接觸高濃度B(a)P的人群全基因組甲基化程度低于接觸低濃度B(a)P的人群[9-10]。相反,B(a)P處理后的小鼠胚胎成纖維細胞全基因組DNA甲基化有明顯的增高[11]。

上述多數研究表明,B(a)P染毒能降低全基因組甲基化程度,其原因是為B(a)P引起DNA加合物生成增多,從而抑制DNA甲基轉移酶的活性,而細胞癌變的重要特征之一也是全基因組DNA甲基化程度降低,可以使染色體結構異常、不穩定性增加,進而出現染色體基因表達異常。少數研究發現,B(a)P染毒后全基因組甲基化程度不變甚至增加,有可能是B(a)P染毒濃度過低時出現“毒物興奮效應”導致的,也可能因實驗設計或測定方法不同引起。

1.2 苯并(a)芘與特定基因甲基化改變

特定基因甲基化的改變對癌癥的發生發展有兩方面的作用,即對抑癌基因,高甲基化狀態會抑制其表達,促進腫瘤事件的發生;對原癌基因,低甲基化狀態會解除對其的抑制,從而促進腫瘤事件的發生。研究發現,B(a)P染毒細胞后,能夠誘導多種抑癌基因〔成對盒5β基因(PAX5β)、胰島素樣生長因子結合蛋白3基因(IGFBP3)、上皮性鈣黏附蛋白基因、視黃酸受體β2基因(RAR-β2)和p53基因〕轉變為甲基化狀態;多種原癌基因(K-ras和逆轉座子LINE1基因)啟動子區域呈現低甲基化狀態,并且基因突變的頻率也隨之增高[12-16]。Tao等[17]發現,B(a)P可以使雌性小鼠的原癌基因胰島素樣生長因子2基因(IGF-2)和c-myc的甲基化程度明顯降低,且表達明顯升高。Corrales等[8]卻發現,石斑魚受精卵染毒后2個癌基因h-ras和msh3及2個抑癌基因apc和brca1的甲基化程度明顯增高;另外,2個抑癌基因p53和dazl的甲基化程度明顯降低。蔣成蘭等[18]通過分析云南宣威14例長期接觸B(a)P的肺癌患者癌組織及癌旁組織的DNA甲基化譜發現,肺癌組織中有23 368個DNA甲基化位點顯著升高。張開力等[19]在接觸B(a)P胃癌患者的胃癌組織中,發現抑癌基因P16甲基化水平升高,并且隨著胃癌的進展,甲基化基因種類明顯增多,甲基化程度也逐漸增強。這一規律也發現于接觸B(a)P的肝癌患者血細胞GSTP基因(抑癌基因)、食管癌患者RAR-β2基因(抑癌基因)、非小細胞肺癌患者抑癌基因(P16和DAPK)和焦爐工人外周血單核細胞抑癌基因(P14,P15和P16)中[20-24]。接觸B(a)P的焦爐工人血液細胞中P53基因(抑癌基因)、消防員血液細胞中DUSP22基因(原癌基因)和肺癌患者肺組織中PP2A基因(抑癌基因)的甲基化水平低于正常對照組[10,25-26]。

對于特定基因的DNA甲基化,上述研究也大部分呈現出與B(a)P致癌相一致的改變,即抑癌基因甲基化程度升高,原癌基因甲基化程度降低,同時還伴隨著DNA甲基轉移酶相應的升高或降低。但是也有相當部分研究發現了與之相反的結果。還有研究發現,DNA甲基化改變方向與DNA甲基轉移酶改變方向不一致,這些都值得進行更深入的研究。

1.3 苯并(a)芘與DNA甲基轉移酶的改變

DNA甲基轉移酶是催化DNA發生甲基化的酶類,包括維持性甲基化酶(DNMT1)、與DNA特定位點結合的甲基化酶(DNMT2)和從頭甲基化酶(DNMT3a和DNMT3b)。研究表明,經B(a)P惡性轉化的小鼠胚胎成纖維細胞和HBE細胞,DNMT1和DNMT3b的mRNA和蛋白表達均明顯增高,各種DNA甲基轉移酶的活性都有明顯的增強[3,12,27-28]。而有研究卻發現,B(a)P染毒的小鼠胚胎成纖維細胞和HeLa細胞中DNMT1和DNMT3a蛋白的表達顯著降低[11,16]。還有研究發現,B(a)P終致癌物雖然不能顯著的改變食管癌細胞中DNMT3a的表達水平,卻能誘導DNMT3a朝向目標基因啟動子區域聚集,同時顯著降低DNMT3b的表達水平[22]。Tommasi等[29]發現,B(a)P染毒的雄性小鼠DNMT3a和DNMT3b表達均下降。相反,Tian等[21]發現,B(a)P暴露能夠誘導肝癌患者體內DNMT1,DNMT3a和DNMT3b的表達。Leng等[30]發現,在吸煙人群中DNMT1和DNMT3a突變序列顯著增加。

2 苯并(a)芘與非編碼RNA

非編碼RNA是指在基因轉錄過程中出現的不編碼蛋白質的RNA。其中與表觀遺傳學有關的主要有小干擾RNA(small interference RNA,siRNA)、微RNA(microRNA,miRNA)以及長鏈非編碼RNA(long noncoding RNA,lncRNA)。目前,非編碼RNA主要的研究方法是先用生物芯片技術進行篩選,再用RNA印跡法和實時熒光PCR等方法進行定量驗證。

2.1 苯并(a)芘與微RNA

miRNA是指一系列內源性小分子單鏈RNA,長約21~23個核苷酸。miRNA的功能是通過降解mRNA或者抑制mRNA翻譯進行轉錄后調控:當miRNA與靶基因mRNA非編碼區(3′-UTR)完全互補配對時,靶基因mRNA出現降解;當miRNA與靶基因mRNA非編碼區不完全互補配對時,靶基因mRNA的翻譯受到抑制[31]。一些研究通過生物芯片對B(a)P染毒細胞的miRNA進行篩選,選出數十種表達量有統計學差異的miRNA[32-36];另有研究針對這些篩選出來的miRNA進行實驗驗證,結果與生物芯片篩選結果基本一致[37-42]。還有研究進一步分析了miRNA的改變所引起的基因表達或者翻譯的改變,甚至對于細胞損傷、細胞增殖和凋亡以及細胞周期的影響[43-49]。動物實驗研究發現,B(a)P染毒野生型秀麗線蟲后2種miRNA表達降低,6種miRNA表達增加[50]。Halappanavar等[51]用B(a)P染毒雄性小鼠,發現肺組織中有7種miRNA表達增加,6種miRNA表達降低,這些miRNA的功能主要是調控血管生成、細胞凋亡和細胞周期等。Deng等[52]通過生物芯片檢測焦爐工人的血液,發現有68種miRNA存在5倍以上的表達下調。同樣,Chen等[26]對比正常組織發現,接觸B(a)P肺癌患者的肺癌組織中miR-34b的表達受到了明顯抑制。Maccani等[53]也發現,吸煙孕婦的胎盤中miR-16,miR-21和miR-146a的表達明顯降低。

上述研究中,無論是細胞實驗、動物實驗還是人群試驗,都發現有部分的miRNA表達上調,部分的miRNA表達下調。作為一種表觀遺傳學調控機制,對于癌癥的發生發展,miRNA調控同樣具有兩個方面:①B(a)P染毒后,表達上調的miRNA能夠下調抑制癌癥發生發展相關基因的表達;②表達下調的miRNA能夠解除對促進癌癥發生發展相關基因表達的抑制。這樣的調控方式也在上述的部分研究中得到體現。但是,也有部分miRNA表達改變并不與癌癥相關,可能是由于miRNA的功能具有多樣性,調控的靶mRNA同樣也具有多樣性。

2.2 苯并(a)芘與長鏈非編碼RNA

lncRNA的長度>200個核苷酸,其可以通過修飾染色質、激活或者抑制DNA轉錄、轉錄后調控mRNA表達以及作為miRNA的誘導分子來干擾基因的表達,進而在腫瘤發生發展中發揮重要的調控作用。研究顯示,在B(a)P染毒的HBE細胞中,發現7種IncRNA的表達水平有明顯差異,其中IncRNA AF11808的增加最為顯著,其可以抑制肺癌細胞生長、遷移和侵襲[54]。同樣,Hu等[55]在HBE細胞中發現,IncRNA-LOC728228的表達也明顯增加,并且可以通過上調細胞周期蛋白D1的表達來促進細胞增殖。Gao等[56]在BESAS-2B細胞中也發現,IncRNA-DQ785227的表達隨著B(a)P染毒時間的延長而逐漸增加,其在肺癌細胞中也有顯著增多。Recio等[57]在B(a)P染毒的雌性小鼠也發現,IncRNA-p21表達明顯增高。

對于lncRNA,上述所有的研究都顯示出一致的趨勢,即B(a)P染毒后,所研究的lncRNA表達均增加,進而促進癌癥的發生發展。但是,可以明顯發現,上述研究中的lncRNA僅有十余種,僅僅是總lncRNA中的極少部分。所以,針對lncRNA,還需要更多更深入的研究。

3 苯并(a)芘與組蛋白修飾

組蛋白是細胞內染色質的基本結構蛋白,被不同基團修飾的組蛋白可以通過改變基因所處的環境、染色質的結構或凝集狀態以及作為信號影響下游蛋白表達的方式來調控基因的表達。組蛋白修飾有多種形式,包括甲基化、乙?;?、磷酸化、泛素化、腺苷酸化、ADP-核糖基化、生物素化和脯氨酸異構化等。

3.1 苯并(a)芘與組蛋白甲基化

組蛋白甲基化由組蛋白轉移酶和組蛋白去甲基化酶催化,主要發生在H3和H4的賴氨酸和精氨酸殘基上。Khanal等[58]用B(a)P染毒人乳腺癌MCF-7細胞后發現,活性組蛋白標志物二甲基化H3K4的表達明顯降低。Lee等[59]在A549細胞也觀察到類似結果。Ovensen等[60]也在HepG2細胞中發現三甲基化H3K4的水平明顯降低。相反,Teneng等[16]在HeLa細胞中發現,L1基因啟動子區域三甲基化H3K4的水平明顯升高。其他研究也發現,B(a)P染毒后三甲基化H3K9和三甲基化H3K27有升高[19]。

3.2 苯并(a)芘與組蛋白磷酸化

組蛋白磷酸化發生在組蛋白N端氨基酸殘基上,其可以通過磷酸基團攜帶的負電荷與組蛋白上的正電荷結合降低組蛋白與DNA之間的親和力,以及通過與特異的蛋白質復合物結合來調控基因表達[61]。B(a)P染毒不同種類的細胞后均顯示,細胞中磷酸化H2AX的含量隨著B(a)P染毒時間的延長而逐漸增加[60,62-73],并且這種上調作用可以被氯化鈷(CoCl2)增強[74],γ-生育酚甲基轉移酶所抑制[75]。相反,在B(a)P染毒的人乳腺癌MCF-10A細胞研究發現,磷酸化H2AX的水平有降低的趨勢[76]。另外,在細胞B(a)P染毒細胞過程中,隨時間的變化觀察到磷酸化H2AX水平先短暫的上調,然后緩慢降低,最后與對照組基本持平[27,77-78]。

3.3 苯并(a)芘與組蛋白乙?;?/p>

組蛋白乙?;且粋€動態的可逆過程,乙?;腿ヒ阴;膭討B失衡可以影響染色質的結構和基因表達,進而影響腫瘤的發生。研究顯示,B(a)P染毒HepG2細胞后,CYP1a1基因啟動子區域乙?;疕3K9,H4K16和H3K14的水平均明顯增加[16,78]。也有研究發現,在接觸B(a)P的人乳腺癌MCF-7細胞中,乙?;疕4A的水平降低[58]。

組蛋白修飾的形式多種多樣,修飾的與未修飾的組蛋白之間存在一定的平衡,并且各種修飾形式之間相互影響。所以很難通過一種組蛋白修飾的改變來衡量其對基因表達的調控效果。而且大部分的研究集中于上述的3種組蛋白修飾的改變,極少關注其他類型的組蛋白修飾,對組蛋白修飾缺乏一個完整的概括。

4 苯并(a)芘致癌的可能表觀遺傳學機制

根據目前的有關研究,B(a)P致癌可能的表觀遺傳學機制包括以下幾個方面:①全基因甲基化降低,染色體結構異常、不穩定增加,進而出現染色體基因表達異常,促進癌癥發生發展;②癌基因甲基化降低,癌基因激活,抑癌基因甲基化升高,解除抑癌基因的抑癌作用,通過增加基因突變頻率、細胞周期阻滯、抑制癌細胞凋亡以及抑制DNA損傷修復促進癌癥的發生發展;③部分miRNA表達升高,部分miRNA表達降低,通過細胞周期阻滯、抑制癌細胞凋亡以及抑制DNA損傷修復促進癌癥的發生發展;④長鏈非編碼RNA表達升高,通過促進DNA復制和修飾染色質促進癌癥的發生發展;⑤組蛋白甲基化失衡和組蛋白乙?;Ш?,通過抑制DNA轉錄和生成異染色質促進癌癥的發生發展;⑥組蛋白磷酸化升高,通過DNA雙鏈斷裂和增加DNA突變頻率促進癌癥的發生發展。另外,上述各種機制之間也存在相互之間的關聯,共同構成一個表觀遺傳學調控體系(見圖1)。

圖1 苯并(a)芘致癌的可能表觀遺傳學機制.lncRNA:長鏈非編碼RNA;miRNA:微RNA;↑:升高;↓:降低.

5 結語

綜上所述,B(a)P可以通過表觀遺傳學機制引起某些基因的表達失調,進而誘導腫瘤的發生,促進腫瘤的發展(見表1)。雖然上述證據表明,B(a)P可以改變DNA甲基化水平,但是各研究結果并不完全一致,而且對于特定基因甲基化的改變大多還未見重復性實驗進行驗證。B(a)P暴露引起非編碼RNA的改變,大部分研究還處于基因芯片篩選的階段,具體的機制研究較少,而且缺乏一個譜系性質的描述,值得深入研究。B(a)P引起組蛋白修飾的改變,已經基本確定了組蛋白改變的區域、修飾的形式以及改變的方向(上調或者下調),但是要確定組蛋白修飾改變以后對基因表達的影響,還需要更多以及更加深入的相關研究。而且現有的研究大多數著眼于DNA甲基化、非編碼RNA和組蛋白修飾,還有其他許多表觀遺傳學機制如核小體的定位、染色質重塑等并未涉及,因而對表觀遺傳學機制缺乏一個整體的評價[79]??偠灾?,B(a)P的表觀遺傳學研究已經受到足夠的重視,并且獲得了相當多有價值的研究成果,這有助于豐富對B(a)P致癌機制的認識,對于進一步揭示B(a)P引起的環境相關性疾病和職業病的發生機制及相關疾病的防治都具有重要意義。

表1 B(a)P致癌的表觀遺傳學改變

續表1

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Research progress in cancer epigenetics mechanisms of benzo(a)pyrene

ZHOU Chao-wen,HU Jian-an

(Department of Occupational and Environmental Health,School of Public Health,Central South University,Changsha 410078,China)

In recent years,researches on cells,animals,and human beings have found that the carcinogenic mechanism of environmental carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene〔B(a)P〕can reduce methyla?tion of the whole genes,increase the tumor suppressor gene methylation and reduce the gene methyla?tion of proto-oncogene,in addition to the genetic toxicity.It can also cause changes in small RNA expression,the increase of long-chain non-coded RNA expression and imbalance in histone phosphor?ylation expressions.These changes can cause abnormalities in gene expression and chromosome structure and instability,directly leading to cancer.These changes can also cause the corresponding changes of genetic toxicity,such as gene mutation,abnormal genetic damage repair,increas of cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest.All these are considered to be potential epigenetic mechanisms of B(a)P. Existing researches have provided the scientific basis for the mechanism of and prevention counter?measures for environment-related diseases and vocational diseases caused by B(a)P.

benzo(a)pyrene;epigenetics;DNA methylation;microRNA;long ioncocling RNA;histone modification

The project supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China(81372966)

HU Jian-an,E-mail:jiananhu@csu.edu.cn,Tel:(0731)84805460,Fax:(0731)84803006

R99

:A

:1000-3002-(2017)05-0375-10

10.3867/j.issn.1000-3002.2017.05.001

2017-01-13 接受日期:2017-05-10)

(本文編輯:齊春會)

國家自然科學基金(81372966)

胡建安,E-mail:jiananhu@csu.edu.cn,Tel:(0731)84805460,Fax:(0731)84803006

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